Lost in Time in Mesoamerica
Fair warning that I’m not sure who might be inclined to read this, a grab bag as it is of incomplete research and tenuously associated lines of enquiry.
Better for everyone though that I put it to record here rather than attempt the topic sat next to you at a dinner party. Slideshow at bottom.
The only lecture that remains in my memory from undergrad days was the second in a curriculum delivered in first year Archaeology by the late Dr David Rindos. The topic of this lecture was “What is Time?”, a question that not only represented my first explicit encounter with philosophic thought but also foreshadowed my studies in existential phenomenology and the work of Martin Heidegger, not the least of which Sein und Zeit (Being and Time).
David’s introductory lecture, delivered to a roomful of very green 18 year olds, took a broad sweep across the history of time including a brief contrast of linear versus cyclical traditions.
I was reminded of this over a decade later when studying Heidegger’s principle of Entschlossenheit (“Resoluteness”) and from there reaching back into Nietzsche: “die ewige Wiederkunft des Gleichen” (eternal recurrence: “the eternal return of the same” as per Groundhog Day).
Key to both Heidegger and Nietzsche here is whether one would live one’s life over differently if given a second chance. The former conceives it as “owning one’s fate” instead of just passively existing.
This then is an excellent way of explaining how one even came to be on this odyssey. Han and I looked at our lives and I think agreed to pursue “version 2”… the one where we live our life encountering the world, embracing the joys, risks and myriad implications such a choice implies. Rather than ‘passively existing’ through a more conventional and yet perfectly serviceable way of life.
Mayan Archaeology
Ironically while this is in the back of one’s mind, my initial interest in visiting Mayan (and Olmec, Zapotec etc) sites was essentially architectural in nature.
It was only in seeking to understand the architectural design of these sites that one discovered a deeper level of intellectual encounter was available in the form of Mayan astronomy and esoterica.
So, while the architectural design elements remain fascinating I find myself a few months into a rabbit hole of celestial mythology and rather ancient science, my exploration of which I intend to share here, inevitably in a rather amateurish fashion.
The Ancient Cities of Mesoamerica
Traveling through Mexico, Belize, and Guatemala, Hannah and I have been immersed in the traces of Mesoamerican civilisations. Each site we visited added to a story of power, trade, myth and innovation. From the monumental Atlanteans of desert Tula to the jungle city of Tikal, the diversity of architectural styles, cultural influences and sheer scientific sophistication has been astounding.
With 27 sites visited my favorite site for its sheer scale and atmosphere is Tikal, however it is Edzná in Campeche which stood out as it offered for me the clearest sense of its function as an astronomical observatory.
Tulá (Toltec), Hidalgo, Mexico
Tulá was the capital of the Toltecs, a civilisation that dominated central Mexico before the rise of the Aztecs. The site is noted for its ‘Atlantean’ figures, massive stone warrior statues that once supported a temple roof. Tulá’s influence extended all the way to the Yucatan, where the Toltecs merged with the Maya at Chichen Itzá, as I understand it in the wake of the late Classic period lowland Mayan collapse.
Teotihuacan (unknown precursor culture), Mexico City, Mexico
Preceding the Toltecs or Aztecs, one can immediately summise that Teotihuacan was the most powerful city in Mesoamerica (100 BCE - 550 CE). The Pyramid of the Sun, Pyramid of the Moon, and the Temple of the Feathered Serpent are massive structures aligned with celestial events. This city influenced civilisations as far away as the Maya, noting that it largely predates the emergence of the lowland cities to the south, at least as we see them in the archaeological record. It is interesting to note Edzná in Campeche shares a common azimuth (e.g is oriented identically to Teotihuacan).
Cholula, Monte Albán, Dainzá, Mitla & Yagul (Zapotec), Oaxaca, Mexico
The Great Pyramid of Cholula is the largest pyramid by volume in the world. Built by successive cultures, it was later buried and forgotten, with a Spanish church now sitting atop it.
Monte Albán, Dainzá, Mitla, and Yagul belonged to the Zapotecs and later the Mixtecs. Monte Albán, a mountaintop city with spectacular views, is the mythological birthplace of the sun. Mitla, known for its intricate geometric stone mosaics, was regarded as the entry to the underworld - the primordial cave from which Zapotecs believed man emerged.
Cities of the Mayan Classical Period
The Maya civilisation (250 - 900 CE) was one of the most advanced in the Americas. Their cities were centers of learning, with extensive written records, astronomical knowledge, and powerful rulers. A seemingly epic conflict raged between these cities through their peak until a collapse saw them abandoned towards the end of the epoch.
Palenque (Chiapas, Mexico)
Highlights of Palenque include the Temple of the Inscriptions and the tomb of King Pakal. The Palace, constructed by Pakal’s heir, has a singular set of architectural features including an observation tower and sprawling hydraulic infrastructure capable of delivering water under pressure to the uppermost floors of the palace.
Calakmul (Campeche, Mexico)
The peak rival to Tikal, Calakmul was one of the largest cities in the Maya world, hidden deep in the jungle. Its massive twin pyramids and thousands of structures make it a breathtaking site. Calakmul negotiated alliances with cities surrounding Tikal in an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to contain their influence, a history that played out over generations broadly equivalent to the Peloponnesian War.
Edzná (Campeche, Mexico)
The layout of Edzná and it’s still-visible sacbeobs (ritual roadways), for me gives the best impression of how the Maya observed celestial movements and managed their calendars, specifically the lunar standstill cycle which is crucial to predicting eclipses. Here’s a video that brings some of this to life.
Uxmal, Kabah, Sayil, Xlapak, Labná (Yucatán, Mexico)
The Puuc region of Yucatán is known for its ornate palaces, intricate stone mosaics, and water management systems. Uxmal is the largest and most impressive, home to the Pyramid of the Magician and the Governor’s Palace, which is aligned with Venus. The other Puuc cities, though smaller, showcase the same elaborate stonework and attention to astronomical alignment.
Cerros, Lamanai, Altun Ha, Xunantunich, Caracol (Belize)
Belize’s sites are less visited but are quite remarkable in their deep jungle settings. Lamanai, with its towering temples beside a river, was continuously occupied for over 3,000 years. Caracol was a nearby major rival to Tikal, and features the largest pyramid in Belize, Caana (‘Sky Palace’).
Tikal (Guatemala)
Located deep in the Guatemalan rainforest in the Maya Biosphere Reserve, Tikal is breathtaking and teeming with life. Its massive pyramids rise above the jungle canopy, with temples built to align with the solstices and equinoxes. Standing atop Temple IV, watching the sunset over the jungle, we could hear howler monkeys roaring in the distance - it was an unforgettable experience. Tikal was a superpower in the Maya Classical period, engaging in wars and trade with cities as far away as Teotihuacan.
Post-Classical cities of the Itzá Maya
Chichen Itzá and Cobá (Yucatán, Mexico)
It appears that these cities were developed after the cities which dominated the Classical period were abandoned by their populations. Prevaling theories suggest an environmental crisis triggered by resource depletion and climate change which led to societal collapse.
A fusion of Maya and Toltec traditions, Chichen Itzá features the Temple of Kukulcán, a pyramid that creates the illusion of a serpent descending the steps during the equinox. The Great Ball Court and the Cenote Sagrado confirm the city was both a religious and political powerhouse.
Cobá has a remarkable network of sacbeob (white stone roads), connecting distant urban centres and suggesting it was the regional hub.
Tulum (Quintana Roo, Mexico)
A seaside fortress, Tulum’s clifftop location makes it one of the most scenic sites we visited, if not slightly overrun by tourist groups. It was one of the last major Maya cities to thrive before the Spanish arrived and features a lighthouse to guide coastal traders into it’s safe harbour.
Visiting these sites gave us a profound appreciation for the sophistication and diversity of Mesoamerican civilisations. Each had its own unique identity - whether it was the militaristic power of Tula, the sprawling scientific ambition of Teotihuacan, the artistic elegance of Uxmal, or the astronomical brilliance of Edzná.
But standing among the towering temples of Tikal, surrounded by jungle and the echoes of the past, was truly unforgettable.
Celestial Events of Peak Interest in Mayan Astronomy and Mythology
Mayan pyramids, temples, and ceremonial centers were aligned with major celestial events. These alignments were tied to their cosmology, calendar system, and religious beliefs. I have been working on a rudimentary understanding of these:
Solar Alignments - Solstices & Equinoxes
It seems the sun was associated with rebirth, the underworld, and the divine right to rule.
Equinox Alignments (March 20-21 & September 22-23, Azimuth ~90° & 270°): The most famous example is El Castillo (Temple of Kukulcán) at Chichen Itzá. During the equinoxes, a serpent-shaped shadow appears on the main staircase, representing the descent of Kukulcán, the feathered serpent god. Maya sites on east-west-axes appear to be oriented for equinox alignments.
Solstice Alignments (June 20-21 & December 21-22, Azimuth ~113° & 293°): Calakmul’s main pyramid has alignment with the summer solstice, which was presumably a key marker in the Maya agricultural calendar as it was also in European traditions. The Temple of the Sun at Palenque has an alignment that marks the winter solstice sunrise, presumably symbolising the rebirth of the sun god as per Stonehenge.
Venus and the Sacred Calendar (Azimuth ~83° & 26° for heliacal rise & set of Venus)
Venus was apparently associated with warfare and blood sacrifice.
Venus’ first visibility before sunrise (heliacal rise) was reportedly observed and used for timing military campaigns. The observatory at Chichen Itzá is aligned to Venus’ extreme positions on the horizon, marking when it appears as the Morning Star or Evening Star.
The Twin Pyramid complex at Tikal appears to be similarly aligned to Venus’ movements.
Lunar and Eclipse Observations
The Maya tracked the lunar cycle and predicted eclipses, which they saw as cosmic battles between the Sun and Moon. The Observatory at Uxmal and Edzná had alignments with lunar standstills, when the moon reaches its furthest rising and setting points. These are clearly visible in the preserved sacbeobs and pyramid layout at Edzná.
The Pleiades and Fertility/Abundance
The Pleiades star cluster, was apparently associated with agriculture and the calendar due to the heliacal rising of the Pleiades coinciding with the start of the Maya agricultural cycle and associated religious rituals. Structures at Izamal and Dzibilchaltán appear to have been aligned with the Pleiades’ movements.
The Milky Way and the Sacred Tree of Creation
The Maya envisioned the Milky Way as a giant celestial tree (the Wakah Chan) that connected the underworld, Earth, and the heavens. Certain temples in Tikal and Palenque are aligned with the rising of the Milky Way’s bright core, symbolizing the creation of the universe in their mythology.
Mayan architecture was a precise instrument for tracking the cosmos. Whether marking the movement of the sun, moon, Venus, or key stars, alignments played a fundamental role in Maya religious ceremonies, agricultural cycles, and one presumes political power.
For me, visiting Edzná gave me the clearest sense of how the Maya used their cities as observatories. Its raised platforms and sightlines showed an intentional design for watching the heavens and predicting eclipses, reinforcing how astronomy was woven into every aspect of their society and a cornerstone of clerical authority.
Closing the Circle
The way cultures perceive time shapes their understanding of history, destiny, and existence. Both perspectives have influenced thought, from philosophy and religion to science and mythology.
The linear time perspective prevails in Western thought, modern science, and Abrahamic religions and sees history as a continuous sequence of unique events. Once a moment has passed, it cannot return. Existentialism is heavily invested around conception of the Past, Present, and Future. Time is divided into distinct periods, with history moving forward rather than repeating. This principle recurs in Enlightenment thought - Progress and Evolution - presuppose the idea that the world and humanity are advancing as a one-way arrow (e.g., technological advance, society).
Teleological fields are even more steadfastly linear - the Christian concept of the Apocalypse, the ‘Singularity’ in AI, Second Law of Thermodynamics, historical materialism (e.g., Marxist doctrine).
In contrast, this whole exercise reminds me that not just Mesoamerican, but Hindu, Buddhist, and Aboriginal world views tend much more to describe time also as a series of repeating cycles, where past events are destined to return in a slightly altered or symbolic way.
The question, the challenge that returns to me is whether we can live as if time is cyclical… if eternal recurrence were true?
If you had to live your life over and over forever, would you live it differently? How should one live in the knowledge that every choice matters infinitely?
I ascribe to the Nietzschean/Heideggerian challenge to embrace life completely, saying “Yes” to the present in all its pain and joy - not because it will always lead to a better future, but because the moment of commitment itself is worth living eternally.
Owning ones fate while accepting the gains and losses of the life most lived. Tomorrow another new road!
Get me down this rabbit hole, stat
After recording bearings using Theodolite on the iOS App Store, I used Stellarium, setting the location as appropriate and entering the estimated year of construction to confirm celestial alignments, and in the case of solar alignments the NOAA’s Solar Calculator to find the sunrise/sunset azimuths also based on estimated year of construction. I then examined these alongside various academic sources listed below.
Various internet resources exist which associate these celestial and solar events with the Mayan calendar and mythology. MexicoHistorico.com and mayan.mythologyworldwide.com are accessible starting points and I had some fun watching the Pyramid Review channel on Youtube.
On the more academic side, try:
“Maya Astronomy and Architecture” by Ivan Šprajc.
“Equinoctial Sun and Astronomical Alignments in Mesoamerican Architecture: Fiction and Fact” by Ivan Šprajc
“Astronomical and Cosmological Aspects of Maya Architecture and Urbanism” by Ivan Šprajc
“Astronomy, Ritual, and the Interpretation of Maya ‘E-Group’ Architectural Assemblages” by David Freidel, Arlen Chase, Anne Dowd, and Jerry Murdoch
“A Review of Archaeoastronomy and the Maya” by José Mendez
